| Topic | Key Equation | Typical Biological Example | |-------|--------------|---------------------------| | | M = n (mol) / V (L) | Concentration of glucose in blood | | pH | pH = –log[H⁺] | Cytosolic pH ≈ 7.2 | | Henderson–Hasselbalch | pH = pKa + log([A⁻]/[HA]) | Bicarbonate buffer system | | Gibbs Free Energy | ΔG = ΔH – TΔS | ATP hydrolysis (ΔG°′ ≈ –30.5 kJ mol⁻¹) | | Michaelis–Menten Kinetics | v = (Vmax · [S])/(Km + [S]) | Enzyme-catalyzed glycolysis steps | | Nernst Equation | E = E° – (RT/nF) ln(Q) | Redox potential of NAD⁺/NADH | | Beer‑Lambert Law | A = ε · c · l | Spectrophotometric protein quantification |

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The weak forces that dictate protein folding and DNA structure. 2. Biological Chemistry

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